Power-Pak C.E.
Advertisement
 Login Help  Forgot Password?
Professions: Topics:
September 7, 2010



For more CE topics, click here to go to uspharmacist.com


     
 
 
Omega 3: Implications in human health and disease - Pharmacy - References

Read Lesson
Lesson

Submit Answers
Answer Questions

Tables
Tables

References
References

Omega 3:
Implications in Human Health and Disease


Published: August 1, 2001
ACPE Lesson Expires: August 1, 2003




Provided through an educational grant from


 

REFERENCES

  1. Applied Biometrics. National Telephone Survey Results, Consumer Health Concerns and Potential for Omega 3 Products. October 1998.
  2. Simopoulos AP. Omega 3 fatty acids in health and disease and in growth and development. Am J Clin Nutr. 1991;54:438-463.
  3. Eaton SB, Eaton III SB, Sinclair AJ, Cordain L, Mann NJ. Dietary intake of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids during the Paleolithic. In: Simopoulos AP, ed. The Return of 3 Fatty Acids into the Food Supply. I. Land Based Animal Food Products and Their Health Effects. World Rev Nutr Diet. Basel, Switzerland: Karger; 1998;83:12-23.
  4. Burr GO, Burr MM. On the essential nature and role of the fatty acids essential in nutrition. J Biol Chem. 1930;86:587-621.
  5. Burr GO, Burr MM. A new deficiency disease produced by the rigid exclusion of fat from the diet. J Biol Chem. 1929;82:345-367.
  6. Lands WEM, Morris A, Libelt B. Quantitative effects of dietary polyunsaturated fats on the composition of fatty acid in rat tissues. Lipids. 1990;25:505-516.
  7. Lands WEM. State of the art: where are we and where are we going. Proc Am Heart Assn: Omega 3 Fatty Acids in Nutrition, Vascular Biology, and Medicine. 1994:1-8.
  8. Marchioli R. Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Lancet. 1999;354:447-455.
  9. de Deckere EAM. Possible beneficial effect of fish and fish n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in breast and colorectal cancer. Eur J Canc Prev. 1999;8:213-221.
  10. Berry EM. Dietary fatty acids in the management of diabetes. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997;66:991S-997S.
  11. Fenton WS, Hibbeln J, Knable M. Essential fatty acids, lipid membrane abnormalities, and the diagnosis and treatment of schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry. 2000;47:8-21.
  12. Lawrence R, Sorrell T. Eicosapentaenoic acid in cystic fibrosis: evidence of a pathogenetic role for leukotriene B4. Lancet. 1993;342:465-469.
  13. Kremer JM. Effects of modulation of inflammatory and immune parameters in patients with rheumatic and inflammatory disease receiving dietary supplementation of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids. Lipids. 1996;31:243S-247S.
  14. Perkins EG. Nomenclature and classification of lipids. In: EG Perkins, ed. Analyses of Fats, Oils and Derivatives. Champaign, Ill: AOCS Press; 1993:1-19.
  15. Poulos A. Very long-chain fatty acids and higher animals—a review. Lipids. 1995;30:1-14
  16. Holman RT, Pusch F, Svingen B, Dutton HJ. Unusual isomeric polyunsaturated fatty acids in liver phospholipids of rats fed hydrogenated oil. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1991;88:4830-4834.
  17. Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, et al. Intake of trans fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease among women. Lancet. 1993;341:581-585.
  18. Holman RT. 3 and 6 essential fatty acid status in human health and disease. In: Yehuda S, Mostofsky DI eds. Handbook of Essential Fatty Acid Biology: Biochemistry, Physiology, and Behavioral Neurobiology. Totawa, NJ: Humana Press; 1999:139-182.
  19. Kris-Etherton PM, Taylor DS, Yu-Poth S, et al. Polyunsaturated fatty acids in the food chain in the United States. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71(suppl):179S-188S.
  20. Simopoulos AP, Robinson J. The Omega Diet: The Lifesaving Nutritional Program Based on the Diet of the Island of Crete. New York, NY: Harper Collins; 1999.
  21. Holman RT. Control of polyunsaturated acid in tissue lipids. J Am Coll Nutr. 1986;5:183-211.
  22. Holman RT, Johnson SB, Hatch TF. A case of human linolenic acid deficiency involving neurological abnormalities. Am J Clin Nutr. 1982;35:617-623.
  23. Holman RT. The ratio of trienoic:tetraenoic acids in tissue lipids as a measure of essential fatty acid requirement. J Nutr. 1960;60:405-410.
  24. Salem N Jr, Ward GR. Are 3 fatty acids essential nutrients for mammals? In: Simopoulos AP, ed. Nutrition and Fitness in Health and Disease. World Rev Nutr Diet. Basel, Switzerland: Karger;1993;72:128-147.
  25. Holman RT. The slow discovery of the importance of 3 essential fatty acids in human health. J Nutr. 1998;128:427S-433S.
  26. Neuringer M, Resiback S, Janowsky J. The role of n-3 fatty acids in visual and cognitive development: current evidence and methods of assessment. J Pediatr. 1994;125:39S-47S.
  27. Uauy R, Peirano P, Hoffman D, Mena P, Birch D, Birch E. Role of essential fatty acids in the function of the developing nervous system. Lipids. 1996;31:S167-176.
  28. Layne KS, Goh YK, Jumpsen JA, Ryan EA, Chow P, Clandinin MT. Normal subjects consuming physiological levels of 18:3(n-3) and 20:5(n-3) from flaxseed or fish oils have characteristic differences in plasma lipids and lipoprotein fatty acid levels. J Nutr. 1996;126:2130-2140.
  29. Widmer C, Holman RT. Polyethenoid fatty acid metabolism. II. Deposition of polyunsaturated fatty acids in fat-deficient rats upon single fatty acid supplementation. Arch Biochem. 1950;25:1-12.
  30. Mohrhauer H, Holman RT. The effect of dose level of essential fatty acids upon fatty acid composition of the rat liver. J Lipid Res.1963;4:151-159.
  31. Holman RT. Nutritional and metabolic interrelationships between fatty acids. Federation Proceedings. 1964;23:1062-1067.
  32. Klenk E, Mohrhauer H, Holman RT. Metabolism of polyene fatty acids in the rat. Z Physiol Chem. 1960;320:218-232.
  33. Voss A, Reinhart M, Sankarappa S, Sprecher H. The metabolism of 7,10,13,16,19-docosapentaenoic acid to 4,7,10,13,16,19-docosahexaenoic acid in rat liver is independent of a 4-desaturase. J Biol Chem. 1991;266:19995-20000.
  34. Holman RT, Mohrhauer H. A hypothesis involving competitive inhibitions in the metabolism of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Acta Chemica Scand. 1963;17:84S-90S.
  35. Lands WEM, Libelt B, Morris A, et al. Maintenance of lower proportions of (n-6) eicosanoid precursors in phospholipids of human plasma in response to added dietary (n-3) fatty acids. Biochem Biophys Acta. 1992;1180:147-162.
  36. Rudin D. The dominant disease of modernized societies as omega 3 essential fatty acid deficiency syndrome: substrate beriberi. Med Hyp. 1982;8:17-47.
  37. Holman RT. Omega 3 deficiencies in humans. In: Proceedings of the 55th Flax Institute USA. Jack Carter, ed. NDSU, Fargo, ND. 1994:4-11.
  38. Kurzok R, Lieb CC. Biochemical studies of human semen: the action of semen on the human uterus. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1930;28:272-298.
  39. von Euler US. History and development of prostaglandins. Gen Pharmacol. 1983;14:3-6.
  40. Lands WEM. Differences in n-3 and n-6 eicosanoid precursors. In: Samuelsson B, Wong PYK, Sun FF, eds. Advances in Prostaglandins, Thromboxanes and Leukotriene Research. New York, NY: Raven Press; 1989;19: 602-605.
  41. Lands WEM. Biosynthesis of prostaglandins. Ann Rev Nutr. 1991;11:41-60.
  42. Hwang D. Essential fatty acids and immune response. FASEBJ. 1989;3:2052-2061.
  43. Kinsella JE, Lokesh B. Dietary lipids, eicosanoids, and the immune system. Crit Care Med. 1990;18(2):94S-113S.
  44. Lands WEM. Discrimination among unsaturated fatty acids. In: Biological Membranes: Aberrations in Membrane Structure and Function. New York: Alan R Liss; 1988;11-28.
  45. Horrobin DF. Nutritional and medical importance of gamma-linolenic acid. Prog Lipid Res. 1992;31:162-194.
  46. Lefokowith JB. Role of manipulation of polyunsaturated fatty acids in inflammation. In: Sinclair AJ, Gibson R eds. Essential Fatty Acids and Eicosanoids. Champaign, Ill: AOCS Press; 1992;349-352.
  47. Bankey PE, Billiar T, Wang W, Carlson A, Holman RT, Cerra FB. Modulation of Kupffer cell membrane phospholipid function by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Surg Res. 1989;46:439-444.
  48. Billiar T, Bankey PE, Svingen B, et al. Fatty acid intake and Kupffer cell function: fish oil alters eicosanoid and monokine production to endotoxin stimulation. Surgery. 1988;104:343-349.
  49. Lands WEM. n-3 fatty acids as precursors for active metabolic substances: dissonance between expected and observed events. J Int Med. 1989;225:11S-20S.
  50. Lands WEM, Letellier PR, Rome RH, Vanderhoek JY. Inhibition of prostaglandin biosynthesis. Adv Biosci. 1973;9:15-27.
  51. Black KL, Culp BR, Randall OS, Lands WEM. The protective effects of dietary fish oil and focal cerebral infarction. Prostaglandins. 1979;3:257-268.
  52. Culp BR, Lands WEM, Lucchesi BR, Pitt B, Romson J. The effect of dietary supplementation of fish oil on experimental myocardial infarction. Prostaglandins. 1980;20:1021-1031.
  53. Simopoulos AP. Essential fatty acids in health and chronic disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;70:560S-569S.
  54. Daly J, Lieberman M, Goldfine J, et al. Enteral nutrition with supplemental arginine, RNA, and omega 3 fatty acids in patients after operation: immunologic, metabolic, and clinical outcome. Surgery. 1992;112:56-67.
  55. Donadio JV, Bergstahl EJ, Offord KP, Spencer DC, Holley KE. A controlled trial of fish oil in IgA nephropathy. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:1194-1199.
  56. Endres S, De Caterina R, Schmidt EB, Kristensen SD. n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: update 1995. Eur J Clin Invest. 1995;25:629-638.
  57. Belluzzi A, Brignola C, Campieri M, Pera A, Boschi S, Miglioli M. Effect of an enteric-coated fish-oil preparation on relapses in Crohn's disease. N Engl J Med. 1996;334:1557-1560.
  58. Belluzzi A, Boschi S, Brignola C, Munarini A, Cariani G, Miglio F. Polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory bowel disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71:339S-342S.
  59. Endres S, Sinha B, Eisenhut T. 3 fatty acids in the regulation of cytokine synthesis. In: Galli C, Simopoulos AP, Tremoli E. eds. Effects of Fatty Acids and Lipids in Health and Disease. World Rev Nutr Diet. Basel, Switzerland: Karger;1994;76:89-94.
  60. Barton R, Wells C, Carlson A, Singh R, Sullivan J, Cerra F. Dietary omega 3 fatty acids decrease mortality and Kupffer cell prostaglandin E2 production in a rat model of chronic sepsis. J Trauma. 1991;31:768-774.
  61. Endres S, Ghorbani R, Kelley VE, et al. The effect of dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on the synthesis of interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor by mononuclear cells. N Engl J Med. 1989;320:265-271.
  62. Meydani SN. Modulation of cytokine production by dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids. PSEBM. 1992;189-193.
  63. Cunnane SC, Hamadeh MJ, Liede AC, Thompson LU, Jenkins DJA. Nutritional attributes of traditional flaxseed in healthy young adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 1995;61:62-68.
  64. Simopoulos AP, Salem N Jr. Purslane: a terrestrial source of omega 3 fatty acids. N Engl J Med. 1986;315:833.
  65. Simopoulos AP, Norman H, Gillaspy JE, Duke JA. Common purslane: a source of omega 3 fatty acids and antioxidants. J Am Coll Nutr. 1992;11:374-382.
  66. Simopoulos AP, Norman HA, Gillaspy JE. Purslane in human nutrition and its potential for world agriculture. In: Simopoulos AP, ed. Plants in Human Nutrition. World Rev Nutr Diet. Basel, Karger. 1995;77:47-74.
  67. Bang HO, Dyerberg J. Plasma lipids and lipoproteins in Greenlandic West-coast Eskimos. Acta Med Scand. 1972;192:85-94.
  68. Dyerberg J, Bang HO, Hjorne. Fatty acid composition of the plasma lipids in Greenland Eskimos. Am J Clin Nutr. 1975;28:958-966.
  69. www.pronova.com, Accessed June 2000.
  70. www.coromega.com, Accessed June 2000.
  71. Mantzioris E, James MJ, Gibson RA, Cleland LG. Dietary substitution with an alpha-linolenic acid-rich vegetable oil increases eicosapentaenoic acid concentrations in tissues. Am J Clin Nutr. 1994;59(6):1304-1309.
  72. Ferrier LK, Caston LJ, Leeson S, Squires J, Weaver BJ, Holub BJ. Alpha-linolenic acid- and docosahexaenoic acid-enriched eggs from hens fed flaxseed: influence on blood lipids and platelet phospholipid fatty acids in humans. Am J Clin Nutr. 1995; 62:68-81.
  73. Lewis NM, Schalch K. Serum lipid response to n-3 fatty acid enriched eggs in persons with hypercholesterolemia. J Am Dietetic Ass. 2000;100:365-367.
  74. Visioli F, Rise P, Plasmati E, Pazzucconi F, Sirtori CR, Galli C. Very low intakes of n-3 fatty acids incorporated into bovine milk reduce plasma triacylglycerol and increase HDL-cholesterol concentrations in healthy subjects. Pharmacol Res. 2000;41(5):571-576.
  75. Simopoulos AP. New products from the agri-food industry: the return of n-3 fatty acids into the food supply. Lipids. 1999;34:S297-S301.
  76. Simopoulos AP, ed. The Return of 3 Fatty Acids into the Food Supply. World Rev Nutr Diet. Basel, Karger. 1998;83.
  77. Whitehouse MW, Macrides TA, Kalafatis N, Betts WH, Haynes DR, Broadbent J. Anti-inflammatory activity of a lipid fraction (Lyprinol) from the NZ green-lipped mussel. Inflammopharmacol. 1997;5:237-246.
  78. Gibson SLM, Gibson RG. The treatment of arthritis with a lipid extract of Perna canaliculus: a randomized trial. Complementary Therapies. 1998;6:122-126.
  79. Dept of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration. Substances affirmed as generally recognized as safe: Menhaden oil. Fed Regist. 1997 (June 5);62(108):30751-30757; available at: www.access.gpo.gov/su_docs/aces/aces140.html
  80. Stone NJ. Fish consumption, fish oil: lipids, and coronary heart disease. Circulation. 1996;94:2337-2340.
  81. Saynor R, Verel D, Gillott T. The long term effect of dietary supplementation with fish lipid concentrate on serum lipids, bleeding time, platelets and angina. Atherosclerosis. 1984;50:3-10.
  82. Knapp HR. Dietary fatty acids in human thrombosis and hemostasis. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997;65(suppl):1687S-1698S.
  83. Eritsland J, Arnesen H, Seljeflot I, Kierulf P. Long-term effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on haemostatic variables and bleeding episodes in patients with coronary artery disease. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. 1995;6:17-22.
  84. Bernard A, Gerbi A, Barbey O, Jamme I, Cozzone PJ, Maixent JM. Dietary fish oil promotes positive inotropy and efficiency of digitalis. Lipids. 1999;34(suppl):S195.
  85. Simopoulos AP, Leaf A, Salem N Jr. Essentiality of and recommended dietary intakes for omega 6 and omega 3 fatty acids. Ann Nutr Metab. 1999;43:127-130.
  86. Krauss RM et al. AHA Dietary Guidelines. Revision 2000: A statement for healthcare professionals from the nutrition committee of the American Heart Association. Circ. 2000;102:2296-2311.
  87. GISSI-Prevenzione Investigators (Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell'Infarto miocardico). Dietary suplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-pevenzione trial. Lancet. 1999;354:447-455.
  88. Gibson RA, Makrides M. n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid requirements of term infants. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71:251S-255S.
  89. Connor WE, Neuringer M, Lin DS. Dietary effects on brain fatty acid composition: the reversibility of n-3 fatty acid deficiency and turnover of docosahexaenoic acid in the brain, erythrocytes, and plasma of rhesus monkeys. J Lipid Res. 1990;31:237-247.
  90. Crawford MA. The role of essential fatty acids in neural development: implications for perinatal nutrition. Am J Clin Nutr. 1993;57:703S-710S.
  91. Holman RT, Johnson SB, Ogburn PL. Deficiency of essential fatty acids and membrane fluidity during pregnancy and lactation. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1991;88:4835-4839.
  92. Hibbeln JR. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in depression and related conditions. In: Peet M, Glen I, Horrobin DF. eds. Phospholipid Spectrum Disorder in Psychiatry. Lancashire, England: Marius Press; 1999;195-210.
  93. Jensen CL, Maude M, Anderson RE, Heird WC. Effect of docosahexaenoic acid supplementation of lactating women on the fatty acid composition of breast milk lipids and maternal and infant plasma phospholipids. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71(suppl):292S-299S.
  94. Makrides M, Gibson RA. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid requirements during pregnancy and lactation. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71(suppl):307S-311S.
  95. Lucas A, Stafford M, Morley R, et al. Efficacy and safety of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation of infant-formula milk: a randomized trial. Lancet. 1999;354:1948-1954.
  96. Carlson SE. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and development of human infants. Acta Paediatr. 1999;430(suppl):72-77.
  97. Carlson SE, Neuringer M. Polyunsaturated fatty acid status and neurodevelopment: a summary and critical analysis of the literature. Lipids. 1999;34(2):171-178.
  98. Gibson RA, Neumann MA, Makrides M. Effect of dietary docosahexaenoic acid on brain composition and neural function in term infants. Lipids. 1996; 31(suppl):S177-S181.
  99. Gibson RA, Makrides M. Polyunsaturated fatty acids and infant visual development: a critical appraisal of randomized clinical trials. Lipids. 1999;34(2):179-184.
  100. Smith W, Mitchell P, Leeder SR. Dietary fat and fish intake and age-related maculopathy. Arch Ophthalmol. 2000;118:401-404.
  101. Brown MF. Modulation of rhodopsin function by properties of the membrane bilayer. Chem Phys Lipids. 1994;73:159-180.
  102. San Giovanni JP, Berkey CS, Dwyer JT, Colditz GA. Dietary essential fatty acids, long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, and visual resolution acuity in healthy fullterm infants: a systematic review. Early Hum Dev. 2000;57(3):165-188.
  103. Werkman SH, Carlson SE. A randomized trial of visual attention of preterm infants fed docosahexaenoic acid until nine months. Lipids. 1996;31(1):91-97
  104. Birch EE, Garfield S, Hoffman DR, Uauy R, Burch DG. A randomized controlled trial of early dietary supply of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and mental development in term infants. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2000;43(3):174-181.
  105. Cunnane SC, Francescutti V, Brenna JT, Crawford MA. Breast-fed infants achieve a higher rate of brain and whole body docosahexaenoate accumulation than formula-fed infants not consuming dietary docosahexaenoate. Lipids. 2000;35(1):105-111.
  106. Jonnalgadda SS, Egan SK, Heimbach JT, Harris, SS, Kris-Etherton PM. Fatty acid consumption patterns of Americans: 1987-1988 USDA nationwide food consumption survey. Nutr Res. 1995;15(12):1767-1781.
  107. Harnack LJ, Jeffery RW, Boutelle KN. Temporal trends in energy intake in the United States: an ecological perspective. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71:1478-1484.
  108. Crawford MA. Fatty acid ratios in free-living and domestic animals. Lancet. 1968:1329-1333.
  109. Crawford MA, Gale MM, Woodford MH. Linoleic acid and linolenic acid elongation products in muscle tissue of Syncerus caffer and other ruminant species. Biochem J.1969;115:25-27.
  110. Crawford MA, Gale MM, Woodford MH, Casperd NM. Comparative studies on fatty acid composition of wild and domestic meats. Int J Biochem. 1970;1:295-305.
  111. Simopoulos AP, Salem N Jr. n-3 fatty acids in eggs from range-fed Greek chickens. N Engl J Med. 1989;321:1412-1415.
  112. Haumann BF. Consumer table spreads. Inform. 1998;9(1):6-13
  113. Tinoco J. Dietary requirements of a-linolenic acid in animals. Prog Lipid Res. 1982;21:1-45.
  114. Okuyama H, Kabayashi T, Watanabe S. Dietary fatty acids—The n-6/n-3 balance and chronic elderly diseases: excess of linoleic acid and relative n-3 deficiency syndrome seen in Japan. Prog Lipid Res. 1997;35(4):409-457.
  115. Yam D, Eliraz A, Berry EM. Diet and disease—The Israeli Paradox: possible dangers of a high omega 6 polyunsaturated fatty acid diet. Isr J Sci. 1996;32:1134-1143.
  116. Fay MP, Freedman LS, Clifford CK, Midthune DN. Effect of different types and amounts of fat on the development of mammary tumors in rodents: a review. Canc Res. 1997;57:3979-3988.
  117. Shoda R, Matsueda K, Yamata S, Umeda N. Epidemiological analysis of Crohn's disease in Japan: increased dietary intake of n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids and animal protein relates to increased incidence of Crohn's disease in Japan. Am J Clin Nutr. 1996;63:741-745.
  118. Gerster H. Can adults adequately convert alpha-linolenic acid (18:3n-3) to eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3). Int J Vitam Nutr Res. 1998;68(3):159-173.
  119. Indu M, Ghafoorunissa. N-3 fatty acids in Indian diets: comparison of the effects of precursor (a-linolenic acid) vs. product (long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids). Nutr Res. 1992;12:569-582.
  120. von Schacky C. n-3 fatty acids and the prevention of coronary atherosclerosis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71:224S-227S.
  121. Daviglus ML, Stamler J, Orencia AJ, et al. Fish consumption and the 30-year risk of fatal myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 1997;336:1046-1053.
  122. Burr ML, Fehily AM, Gilbert JF, et al. Effects of changes in fat, fish and fibre intakes on death and myocardial reinfarction: Diet and Reinfarction Trial (DART). Lancet. 1989;2:757-761.
  123. Marckmann P, Gronbaek M. Fish consumption and coronary heart disease mortality: a systematic review of prospective cohort studies. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1999;53:585-590.
  124. Albert CM, Hennekens CH, O'Donnell CJ, et al. Fish consumption and risk of sudden cardiac death. JAMA. 1998;279(1):23-28.
  125. Gillum RF, Mussolino M, Madans JH. The relation between fish consumption, death from all causes, and incidence of coronary heart disease: the NHANES I Epidemiological Follow-up Study. J Clin Epidemiol. 2000;53:237-244.
  126. de Lorgeril M, Renaud S, Mamelle N, et al. Mediterranean alpha-linolenic acid-rich diet in secondary prevention of coronary heart disease. Lancet. 1994;343:1454-1459.
  127. Eritsland J, Arnesen H, Gronseth K, Fjeld NB, Abdelnoor M. Effect of dietary supplementation with n-3 fatty acids on coronary artery bypass graft patency. Am J Cardiol. 1996;77:31-36.
  128. Connor WE. Importance of n-3 fatty acids in health and disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71:171S-175S.
  129. Connor WE, Prince MJ, Ullmann D. The hypotriglyceridemic effect of fish oil in adult-onset diabetes without adverse glucose control. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1993;683:337-340.
  130. Harris WS. n-3 fatty acid and serum lipoproteins: human studies. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997;65(5)(suppl):1645S-1654S.
  131. Nagakawa Y, Orimo H, Harasawa M, Morita I, Yashiro K, Murota S. Effect of EPA on platelet aggregation and composition of fatty acids in man. Atherosclerosis. 1983;47:71-75.
  132. Nestel PJ, Connor WE, Reardon MR, Connor S, Wong S, Boston R. Suppression by diets rich in fish oil of very low density lipoprotein production in man. J Clin Invest. 1984;74:72-89.
  133. Phillipson BE, Rothrock DN, Connor WE, Harris WS, Illingworth DR. Reduction of plasma lipids, lipoproteins and apoproteins by dietary fish oils in patients with hypertriglyceridemia. N Eng J Med. 1985;32:1210-1216.
  134. The American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists Medical Guidelines for Clinical Practice for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Dyslipidemia and Prevention of Atherogenesis. Endocr Pract. 2000;6(2):162-213. Available at: http://www.aace.com/clin/guidelines/lipids.pdf.
  135. Contacos C, Barter PJ. Sullivan DR. Effect of pravastatin and -3 fatty acids on plasma lipids and lipoproteins in patients with combined hyperlipidemia. Arterioscler Thromb. 1993;13(12):1755-1762.
  136. Harris WS, Ginsberg HN, Arunakul N, et al. Safety and efficacy of Omacor in severe hypertriglyceridemia. J Cardiovasc Risk. 1997;4:385-391.
  137. Sanchez-Muniz FJ, Bastida S, Viejo JM, Terpstra AH. Small supplements of n-3 fatty acids change serum low density lipoprotein composition by decreasing phospholipid and apolipoprotein B concentrations in young adult women. Eur J Nutr. 1999;38:20-27.
  138. Nakamura N, Hamazaki T, Ohta M, et al. Joint effects of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors and eicosapentaenoic acids on serum lipid profile and plasma fatty acid concentrations in patients with hyperlipidemia. Int J Clin Lab Res. 1999;29:22-25.
  139. Ullmann D, Connor WE, Illingworth DR, Hagemenas FC, Pappu A. Additive effects of lovastatin and fish oil in familial hypercholesterolemia. Arteriosclerosis. 1990;10(5):846a (abstract).
  140. Friedberg CE, Janssen MJ, Heine RJ, Grobbee DE. Fish oil and glycemic control in diabetes: a meta-analysis. Diabetes Care. 1998;21(4):494-500.
  141. Haines AP, Sanders TAB, Imeson JD, et al. Effects of fish oil supplement on platelet function, haemostatic variables and albuminuria in insulin-dependent diabetics. Thromb Res. 1986;43:643-655.
  142. Stiefel P, Ruiz-Gutierrez V, Gajon E, et al. Sodium transport kinetics, cell membrane lipid composition, neural conduction and metabolic control in type I diabetic patients: changes after a low-dose n-3 fatty acid dietary intervention. Ann Nutr Metab. 1999;43(2):113-120.
  143. Hendra TJ, Britton ME, Roper DR, et al. Effects of fish oil supplements in NIDDM subjects: controlled study. Diabetes Care. 1990;13:821-829.
  144. Sirtori CR, Paoletti R, Mancini M, et al. n-3 fatty acids do not lead to an increased diabetic risk in patients with hyperlipidemia and abnormal glucose tolerance. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997;65:1874-1881.
  145. Fletcher JR. Critical agents in the physiological process and cellular injury. Arch Surg. 1993;128:1192-1196.
  146. Bibus D. Fatty acid and lipid analysis laboratory. Lipid Technologies, LLC,
    PO Box 216, Austin, MN 55912. 507-434-2829. bibus@smig.net.
  147. James MJ, Gibson RA, Cleland LG. Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory mediator production. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71(suppl):343S-348S.
  148. Siguel EN, Lerman RH. Prevalence of essential fatty acid deficiency in patients with chronic gastrointestinal disorders. Metabolism. 1996;45:12-23.
  149. Lorenz R, Weber PC, Szimnau P, Heldwein W, Strasser T, Loeschke K. Supplementation with n-3 fatty acids from fish oil in chronic IBD — a randomized, placebo controlled, double blind crossover trial. J Intern Med. 1989;225(suppl 1):225-232.
  150. Stenson WF, Cort D, Rodgers J, et al. Dietary supplementation with fish oil in ulcerative colitis. Ann Intern Med. 1992;116:609-614.
  151. Aslan A, Triadadilopoulos G. Fish oil fatty acid supplementation in active ulcerative colitis: a double blind placebo controlled, crossover study. Am J Gastroenterol. 1992;87:432-437.
  152. Kremer JM. n-3 fatty acid supplementation in rheumatoid arthritis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71:349S-351S.
  153. Navarro E, Esteve M, Olive A, et al. Abnormal fatty acid pattern in rheumatoid arthritis: a rationale for treatment with marine and botanical lipids. J Rheumatol. 2000;27(2):298-303.
  154. Nielsen GL, Faarvang KL, Thomsen BS, et al. The effects of dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a randomized, double blind trial. Eur J Clin Invest. 1992;22:687-691.
  155. Kremer JM., Lawrence DA, Petrillo GF, et al. Effects of high-dose fish oil on rheumatoid arthritis after stopping nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. Arthritis Rheum. 1995;36(8):1107-1114.
  156. Fortin PR, Lew RA, Liang MH, et al. Validation of a meta-analysis: the effects of fish oil in rheumatoid arthritis. J Clin Epidemiol. 1995;48(11):1379-1390.
  157. Geusens P, Wouters C, Nijs J, Jiang Y, Dequeker J. Long-term effect of omega 3 fatty acid supplementation in active rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 1994;37:824-829.
  158. Lundstrom V, Green K, Svanborg K. Endogenous prostaglandins in dysmenorrhea and the effect of prostaglandin synthetase inhibitors (PGSI) on uterine contractility. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scan. 1979;(suppl 87):51-56.
  159. Deutch B. Menstrual pain in Danish women correlated with low n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1995;49:508-516.
  160. Harel Z, Biro FM, Kottenhahn RK, Rosenthal SL. Supplementation with omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the management of dysmenorrhea in adolescents. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1996;174:335-338.
  161. Deutch B, Jørgensen EB, Hansen JC. Menstrual discomfort in Danish women reduced by dietary supplements of omega 3 PUFA and B12 (fish oil or seal oil capsules). Nutr Res. 2000;20:621-631.
  162. Hodge L, Salome CM, Peat JK, Haby MM, Xuan W, Woolcock AJ. Consumption of oily fish and childhood asthma risk. Med J Aust. 1996;164:137-140.
  163. Schwartz J. Role of polyunsaturated fatty acids in lung disease. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71(suppl):393S-396S.
  164. Smit HA, Grievink L, Tabak C. Dietary influences on chronic obstructive lung disease and asthma: a review of the epidemiological evidence. Proc Nutr Soc. 1999;58(2):309-319.
  165. Woods RK, Thien FC, Abramson MJ. Dietary marine fatty acids (fish oil) for asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000;(2):CD001283.
  166. Thien FCK, Mencia-Huerta JM, Lee TH. Dietary fish oil effects on seasonal hay fever and asthma in pollen-sensitive subjects. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993;147:1138-1143.
  167. Stoll AL, Severus WE, Freeman MP, et al. Omega 3 fatty acids in bipolar disorder: a preliminary double blind, placebo controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999;56:407-412.
  168. Peet M, Murphy B, Shay J, Horrobin D. Depletion of omega 3 fatty acid levels in red blood cell membranes of depressive patients. Biol Psychiatry. 1998;43:315-319.
  169. Adams PB, Lawson S, Sanigorski A, Sinclair AJ. Arachidonic acid to eicosapentaenoic acid ratio in blood correlates positively with clinical symptoms of depression. Lipids. 1996;31:157S-161S.
  170. Maes M. Fatty acids, cytokines, and major depression. Biol Psychiatry. 1998;43:313-314.
  171. Maes M, Christophe A, Delanghe J, Altamura C, Neels H, Meltzer HY. Lowered 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in serum phospholipids and cholesteryl esters of depressed patients. Psychiatry Res. 1999;85:275-291.
  172. Nordstrom DC, Honkanen VE, Nasu Y, Antila E, Friman C, Konttinen YT. Alpha-linolenic acid in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis: a double blind, placebo controlled and randomized study: flaxseed vs. safflower seed. Rheumatol Int. 1995;14(6):231-234.
  173. Maes M, Smith R, Christophe A, Cosyns P, Desnyder R, Meltzer H. Fatty acid composition in major depression: decreased 3 fractions in cholesteryl esters and increased C20:4:6/C20:53 ratio in cholesteryl esters and phospholipids. J Affect Disord. 1996;38:35-46.
  174. Bruinsma KA. The association between essential fatty acid intake, body self image, and depression among women. University of Arizona, 1999. Thesis.
  175. Hibbeln JR, Linnoila M, Umhau JC, et al. Essential fatty acids predict metabolites of serotonin and dopamine in cerebrospinal fluid among healthy control subjects and early- and late-onset alcoholics. Biol Psychiatry. 1998;44(4):235-242.
  176. Mellor JE, Laugharne JDE, Peet M. Schizophrenic symptoms and dietary intake of n-3 fatty acids (letter to the editor). Schizophr Res. 1995;18:85-86.
  177. Horrobin DF. The phospholipid concept of psychiatric disorders and its relationship to the neurodevelopmental concept of schizophrenia. In: Peet M, Glen I, Horrobin DF. eds. Phospholipid Spectrum Disorder in Psychiatry. Lancashire, England: Marius Press; 1999;3-20.
  178. Peet M. New strategies for the treatment of schizophrenia: omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. In: Peet M, Glen I, Horrobin DF. eds. Phospholipid Spectrum Disorder in Psychiatry. Lancashire, England: Marius Press; 1999;189-194.
  179. Burgess JR, Stevens L, Zhang W, Peck L. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71:327S-330S.
  180. Hamazaki T, Sawazaki S, Nagasawa T, Nagao Y, Kanagawa Y, Yazawa K. Administration of docosahexaenoic acid influences behavior and plasma catecholamine levels at times of psychological stress. Lipids. 1999;34(suppl):S33-S37.
  181. Rose DP, Connolly JM. Omega 3 fatty acids as cancer chemopreventive agents. Pharmacol Ther. 1999;83(3):217-244.
  182. Cave WT, Jr. Dietary -3 polyunsaturated fats and breast cancer. Nutrition. 1996;12(suppl): S39-S42.
  183. Norrish AE, Skeaff CM, Arribas GLB, Jackson RT. Prostate cancer risk and consumption of fish oils: a dietary biomarker-based case-control study. Br J Cancer. 1999;81(7):1238-1242.
  184. Yang YJ, Lee SH, Hong SJ. Comparison of fatty acid profiles in the serum of patients with prostate cancer and benign prostatic hyperplasia. Clin Biochem. 1999;32:405-409.
  185. Bartsch H, Nair J, Owen RW. Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and cancers of the breast and colorectum: emerging evidence for their role as risk modifiers. Carcinogenesis. 1999;20(12):2209-2218.
  186. Marks F, Furstenberger G. Cancer chemoprevention through interruption of multistage carcinogenesis: the lessons learnt by comparing mouse skin carcinogenesis and human large bowel cancer. Eur J Cancer. 2000;36(3):314-329.
  187. Singh J, Hamid R, Reddy BS. Dietary fat and colon cancer: modulating effect of types and amount of dietary fat on ras-p2l function during promotion and progression stages of colon cancer. Cancer Res. 1997;57:253-258.
  188. Rose DP, Connolly JM, Liu XH. Effects of linoleic acid on the growth and metastasis of the human cancer cell lines in nude mice and the invasive capacity of these cell lines in vitro. Cancer Res. 1995;54:6557-6562.
  189. Rose DP, Connolly JM, Coleman M. Effect of omega 3 fatty acids on the progression of metastases after the surgical excision of human breast cancer cell solid tumors growing in nude mice. Clin Cancer Res. 1996;2:1751-1756.
  190. Kachhap SK, Dange P, Nath Gosh S. Effect of -6 polyunsaturated fatty acid (linoleic acid) on BRCA1 gene expression in MCF-7 cell line. Cancer Lett. 2000;154:115-120.
  191. Johanning GL. Modulation of breast cancer cell adhesion by unsaturated fatty acids. Nutrition. 1996;12(11/12):810-816.
  192. Rose DP. Effects of dietary fatty acids on breast and prostate cancers: evidence from in vitro experiments and animal studies. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997;66(suppl):1513S-1522S.
  193. Zhu ZR, Agren, J, Uusitupa M. Fatty acid composition of breast adipose tissue in breast cancer patients and in patients with benign breast disease. Nutr Cancer. 1995;24:151-160.
  194. Bagga D, Capone S, Wang HJ, et al. Dietary modulation of omega 3/omega 6 polyunsaturated fatty acid ratios in patients with breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1997;89(15):1123-1131.
  195. Shao Y, Pardini L, Pardini RS. Dietary Menhaden oil enhances mitomycin C antitumor activity toward human mammary carcinoma MX-1. Lipids. 30(11):1035-1045.
  196. Zhang J, Temme EHM, Kesteloot H. Fish consumption is inversely associated with male lung cancer mortality in countries with high levels of cigarette smoking or animal fat consumption. Intl J Epidemiol. 2000;29(4):615-621.
  197. Ogilvie GK, Fettman MJ, Mallinckrodt CH, et al. Effect of fish oil, arginine, and doxorubicin chemotherapy on remission and survival time for dogs with lymphoma: a double blind, randomized placebo controlled study. Cancer. 2000;88(8):1916-1928.
  198. Gramaglia A, Loi GF, Mongioj V, Baronzio GF. Increased survival in brain metastatic patients treated with stereotactic radiotherapy, omega three fatty acids and bioflavonoids. Anticancer Res. 1999;19(6C):5583-5586.
  199. Gogos CA, Ginopoulos P, Salsa B, Apostolidou E, Zoumbos NC, Kalfarentzos F. Dietary omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids plus vitamin E restore immunodeficiency and prolong survival for severely ill patients with generalized malignancy: a randomized control trial. Cancer. 1998;82:395-402.
  200. Beck SA, Smith KL, Tisdale MJ. Anticachectic and antitumor effect of eicosapentaenoic acid and its effect on protein turnover. Cancer Res. 1991;51(22):6089-6093.
  201. Tisdale MJ. Inhibition of lipolysis and muscle protein degradation by EPA in cancer cachexia. Nutrition. 1996;12(suppl):S31-S33.
  202. Burns CP, Halabi S, Clamon GH, et al. Phase I clinical study of fish oil fatty acid capsules for patients with cancer cachexia: cancer and leukemia Group B Study 9473. Clin Cancer Res. 1999;5:3942-3947.
  203. Wigmore SJ, Ross JA, Falconer JS, et al. The effect of polyunsaturated fatty acids on the progress of cachexia in patients with pancreatic cancer. Nutrition. 1996;12(suppl):S27-S30.
  204. Barber MD, Wigmore SJ, Ross JA, Fearon KCH. Eicosapentaenoic acid attenuates cachexia associated with advanced pancreatic cancer. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 1997;57:204.
  205. Barber MD, Ross JA, Voss AC, Tisadale MJ, Fearon KC. The effect of oral nutrition supplement enriched with fish oil on weight-loss in patients with pancreatic cancer. Br J Cancer. 1999;81:80-86.

 

BACK to TOP

 
 
 
       
 
Copyright © 1997 - 2010 Postgraduate Healthcare Education LLC unless otherwise noted.
All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part without permission is prohibited. Privacy Policy