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Module 6. Healthy Eating With Diabetes
Nutrition is one of the most controversial health topics, with opinions about what constitutes a
healthy diet ranging from one extreme (e.g., low carbohydrate) to the other (e.g., low fat). Diet is
a major consideration for those managing diabetes and, while carbohydrates have garnered the
most interest related to glycemic control, other dietary components are likely equally important.
Given the controversies related to nutrition, even some of the most reputable organizations, such
as the American Diabetes Association (ADA), have chosen to refrain from giving specific
dietary guidelines to people with diabetes, stating in their Standards of Care that, “there is not a one-size-fits-all eating pattern for individuals with diabetes.”1 The ADA further states that
studies examining the ideal amount of carbohydrate intake for people with diabetes are
inconclusive. However, they do acknowledge that “monitoring carbohydrate intake and
considering the available insulin” can improve postprandial control. The United States
Department of Agriculture (USDA) MyPlate guide to eating is the most current food guide
pyramid (i.e., accessible at ChooseMyPlate.gov). MyPlate provides nutritional guidance to the
American population as a whole; but, it is not necessarily the key to eating as a means to control
blood glucose levels in people with diabetes or pre-diabetes. MyPlate recommends that half of an
individual’s daily plate of food consist of fruits and vegetables. While such dietary intake will
likely increase the intake of nutrients and phytochemicals,2 produce varies widely in its
nutritional content and, therefore, in its glycemic impact on people with diabetes.3
Many people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) are counseled to lose weight to help manage
or potentially reverse diabetes or pre-diabetes. Weight loss may be a useful goal for people with
T2DM who are overweight, but it may have to exceed 5% in order to impact blood glucose
control.4 Sustaining a weight loss of as little as 5% to 7% of body weight can lead to a decrease
in insulin resistance and improvement in blood glucose control and, therefore, allows for a
reduction in the amount of medication taken.5 Along the same lines, even preventing excessive
weight gain in those with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) can help keep insulin action high and
insulin needs lower by preventing or reducing insulin resistance.6 While the nutrition focus in
this module is on the benefits of balancing carbohydrates, fats, and protein in the diet to control
blood glucose levels, improvements in body weight will likely also result from a healthier diet
and other lifestyle improvements.
What Constitutes a Healthy Diet for People With Diabetes?
Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are the dietary macronutrients that provide energy for activity
and routine body functioning, although each of these nutrients has a different primary role.
Protein helps to build muscle and other bodily structures, while fat is important as a source of
stored energy and contributes to the health of the brain, nerves, hair, skin, and nails.
Carbohydrate is a major fuel source for the body, especially during physical activity, and is the
primary supplier of energy for the brain, nerves, and muscles.
The quality of dietary fats and carbohydrates consumed is more crucial than is the quantity of
these macronutrients. Diets rich in whole grains, fruits, vegetables, legumes, and nuts; moderate
in alcohol consumption; and lower in refined grains, red or processed meats, and sugar-sweetened beverages have been shown to reduce the risk of diabetes and improve glycemic
control and blood lipids in patients with diabetes.7 A recent systematic review concluded that
there is currently insufficient evidence to suggest that any particular diet is superior for treating
overweight and obese patients with T2DM; although the Mediterranean, vegan, and low-glycemic index diets appear to be promising.8 When overall diet quality is emphasized, several
dietary patterns, such as Mediterranean, low-glycemic index, moderately low carbohydrate
intake, and vegetarian diets, can be tailored to personal and cultural food preferences and
appropriate calorie needs for weight control and diabetes prevention and management.9-11
Regardless of a patient’s overall dietary pattern, it helps to check blood glucose levels before and
after meals to learn how foods affect each individual, particularly for those ingesting a lot of
carbohydrates (e.g., such as potatoes, bread, rice, and pasta). People should focus on keeping
portion sizes reasonable and appropriate for a specific height and target BMI (i.e., if weight loss
is a goal) and manage blood glucose levels by providing a good balance of carbohydrates, fats, and protein. Everyone, including all people with diabetes, will benefit from an appropriate balance of these 3 macronutrients.
Sidebar: Does Your Plate Look Like This?
The Joslin Diabetes Center in Boston, world-renowned for its management and treatment of
diabetes, suggests that daily food intake for people with diabetes should resemble the plate in Figure 1 more than the USDA MyPlate guidelines, which recommend that half of the plate be
comprised of fruits and vegetables. How close to the Joslin plate is your eating plan?
Figure 1. Joslin Diabetes Center: Plate
- Is your plate covered with fruits and vegetables that vary in color: dark green, orange,
yellow, and red?
- Has the fat been trimmed from your meat and the skin removed?
- Did you choose leaner cuts of meat, poultry, or fish?
- Did you choose whole-grain pastas or breads? Brown rice or potato with skin?
- How much fat was used in cooking or added to your plate?
- Did you boil, steam, grill, or bake instead of frying your foods?
|
Adapted from Joslin Diabetes Center education materials. Copyright © 2012 by Joslin Diabetes Center (www.joslin.org). All rights reserved. |
Carbohydrate Intake
Carbohydrates have the greatest impact on the amount of glucose in the blood because they are
converted to glucose relatively quickly. Many people with diabetes try to avoid or limit their
intake of carbohydrates as a way to maintain healthy blood glucose levels, but the human body
requires the fiber found in plant foods. Carbohydrates are also the body’s first choice for fuel during many physical activities; so, not having enough in the diet may limit a person’s ability to exercise optimally.
Many people with diabetes count the grams of carbohydrates in foods to help them control their
blood glucose levels, and others choose carbohydrates based on their glycemic index (i.e., how
rapidly the food item raises blood glucose levels).12 The exact amount of carbohydrates a person
with diabetes should ingest varies based on physical activity levels, medications used, and
overall insulin action. Starches and sugars ideally should be limited, but not fiber and non-starchy vegetables, such as salad greens, peppers, tomatoes, green beans, carrots, cauliflower,
and onions.
Fiber Intake: Fiber includes all indigestible polysaccharides (i.e., a type of complex
carbohydrate), including the natural ones in foods and others that are extracted or isolated from
foods or made synthetically (e.g., Metamucil fiber supplement).13 Soluble fiber, which is found
in oatmeal, legumes, seeds, fruits (e.g., apples, bananas, citrus fruits), and vegetables, dissolves
in water, is partially metabolized in the large intestine by health-promoting bacteria, and helps
lower blood cholesterol. Oats in particular may have a strong anti-inflammatory effect by
increasing these healthful bacteria in the intestinal tract.14 An insoluble form of fiber is found in
carrots, celery, and the skins of corn kernels; fruit peels, cores, and seeds; brown rice; and whole
grains. Acting as roughage, most fiber passes through the human digestive system without being
fully digested and ensures regular bowel movements. Since it resists acids and digestive enzymes
in the stomach, fiber cannot be fully digested and does not add calories to the diet.
In addition to those previously mentioned, dietary fiber has many other health and metabolic
benefits.13 For instance, a high-fiber diet may help reduce the chances of developing heart
disease, diabetes, obesity, strokes, colorectal and other types of cancer, diverticulosis, and
hemorrhoids.13 Fiber adds bulk and aids in portion control because it generally slows down the
rate at which food empties from the stomach, makes people feel full longer, and prevents
excessive eating and weight gain. From a diabetes and a personal health standpoint, dietary fiber
may reduce blood glucose and cholesterol, all while slowing the digestion of carbohydrates to
glucose, thereby keeping blood glucose levels more stable.
Current research is focusing on the role of the gut microbiome—the bacteria that reside in the
intestinal tract—on human health and disease. The human body hosts 100 trillion, mostly benign
bacteria, which help digest food, program the immune system, prevent infection, and even
influence mood and behavior. The bacteria living on and in us make up an ecosystem that likely
plays a role in many conditions that genes and environmental factors alone fail to explain,
including obesity, autism, depression, asthma, irritable bowel syndrome, and even cancer.15
In fact, it is very possible that the type of bacteria people have in their gut has a huge impact on
whether they gain weight or stay slim, get diabetes or avoid it, and develop other chronic
diseases or stay healthier.16 Although this research is ongoing, it is clear is that fiber enhances the
gut’s abundance of the good bacteria that reduce inflammation. For no other reason, patients with
diabetes (and other metabolic health conditions) should eat as much fiber as possible to keep
their health-promoting gut bacteria thriving and abundant.
Sidebar: Eat More Dietary Fiber
The low-carbohydrate craze has resulted in many products with added fiber (including pasta and
tortilla shells); but, in general, the more refined a product is, the less fiber it has. To find out the fiber content of any food, either read its nutrition label (if it comes in a box or package) or look
up information online (https://fnic.nal.usda.gov/food-composition/macronutrients/fiber). A
reasonable fiber goal is a minimum of 12.5 grams per 1000 calories daily. |
A good target is at least 20 to 35 grams of dietary fiber per day. Fiber is found only in plant-based foods, such as oats, oat bran, ground flaxseed, beans, fruits, wheat bran, apple peels, and
most vegetables. Instead of trying to eat a certain amount, it may be easier to simply eat more
nutritious types of plants, fruits, and vegetables, in addition to whole grains, legumes, nuts, and
seeds.
Fat Intake
Diabetes can result in unhealthy changes in blood fats. In addition, elevated levels of
triglycerides, which can result from eating highly refined carbohydrates and less healthy types of
cholesterol, plays a major role in stimulating the inflammatory process leading to the
development of cardiovascular disease common to people with diabetes.17 Not every type of fat
is bad, although the proposed health benefits attributed to various types of fats are still being
hotly debated in the nutrition world. But, it has been proven that a high intake of certain types of
fat, as well as the intake of refined carbohydrates, can contribute to the development of insulin
resistance and negative changes in blood fats.18
Eat Fewer Trans Fats and Processed Fats: Trans fats are created by manufacturers when they
hydrogenate or partially hydrogenate liquid oils to alter their texture. Consumption of trans fats
found in hydrogenated oils contributes to insulin resistance and makes it harder to control blood
glucose and cholesterol levels. Found most abundantly in processed foods, crackers, cookies, and
baked goods, trans fats may be disguised as monoglycerides and diglycerides, stearate, palmitate,
lard, vegetable shortening, and hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated oils. The minimal amount
of trans fats found in natural sources (e.g., cheese), however, are not considered as unhealthy as
the manufactured trans fats.19
Highly processed meats (e.g., bacon, sausage, and lunch meats) are also likely bad for health
because of the preservatives added. For example, eating even one fast food meal high in both
manufactured trans fats and highly processed fats can interrupt the normal flow of blood through
arteries and veins for hours afterward and make the body’s response to insulin sluggish as well.
Conversely, eating a high-fat breakfast that contains mostly a good fat, such as olive oil, allows
blood glucose and insulin levels to stay lower.20 A high intake of highly processed meat has been
associated with a higher risk of T2DM.21,22
Interesterified fat is another type of manufactured fat that is currently being added to processed
foods in place of trans fats; but, because it is a newer product, it does not have to be reported or
listed on food labels. Studies show that this new type of altered fat may not be heart-healthy and
may be as detrimental to the human cardiovascular system as trans fats.23,24
Eat More Omega fats and Healthy Plant Fats: The following 2 dietary polyunsaturated fats
are essential to good health: omega-3 and omega-6 fats. Both are important to include in a
healthy diet, particularly for people with diabetes whose nutrition is even more important to
preserve their long-term health.
Omega-3 fats are abundant in dark green, leafy vegetables (e.g., dark-colored lettuce, spinach,
kale, turnip greens), canola oil, flaxseed oil, soy, some nuts (e.g., walnuts), fish, and fish oils.
Only fish and fish oils contain larger amounts of the 2 omega-3 fats called docosahexaenoic acid
(DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) that are critical for brain and nerve function,
cardiovascular health, and more. Plant foods contain mainly the essential omega-3 fat called
alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), which may be converted, by the body, into DHA and EPA if intake
is low.
Omega-6 fats are abundant in the corn, sunflower, peanut, and soy oils used to make food
products, such as margarine, salad dressing, and cooking oils, and they may actually help lower
inflammation.25 A high vegetable fat intake may decrease type 2 diabetes risk for women.26
Diets high in certain types of fat, such as the plant-based fats found naturally in avocados, may
actually improve insulin action. Even tropical oils that are saturated and minimally processed are
considered healthier options (e.g., coconut). Unnaturally low-fat diets can cause the liver to
produce more bad cholesterol, especially if people replace fat with refined carbohydrates.18
It is best to reduce or avoid the intake of unhealthy fats by eating more foods in their natural
state, foods that have not been processed, such as high-fiber vegetables, legumes, and fish. Blood
cholesterol levels are more likely to decrease with a diet moderate in fat (i.e., 30% of daily
calories) that does not include the low-fat versions of snack foods, which are comprised of sugars
and more refined carbohydrates added to improve taste and consistency.18
Healthiness of Fat in Red Meat, Dairy, Eggs, and Nuts
The topic of red meat being a health concern has been accepted since the 1960s. Studies have
shown that the likely culprit in red meat is carnitine, and gut microbes that break down this
compound into harmful byproducts such as TAMO that has been associated with atherosclerosis
risk.21 The old adage remains true for now, the less red meat in your diet, the better. Do not
despair though, many healthier choices are available, including fish, nuts, legumes, fruits, and
vegetables. As a method of reducing calorie intake, it is safe to suggest or recommend
consumption of the low-calorie or low-fat versions of dairy products, such as cheese and milk.27 Also, diets rich in the monounsaturated fats found in olive oil, canola oil, and nuts and seeds are
heart healthy and do not necessarily promote weight gain. Actually, if someone is following a
weight loss diet and eats a handful of almonds or other nuts daily, he or she is likely to lose more
weight than eating the same number of calories without the nuts.28
Blood cholesterol levels should decrease as people eliminate trans fats and other processed fats
from their diets. Everyone must have a certain amount of cholesterol, which is a waxy, fat-like
substance important in cell and hormone composition; the liver will excrete cholesterol as
needed. Cholesterol is found in all animal products, including meat, poultry, dairy, eggs, and all
types of fish, but not in plants. More recent studies indicate that the cholesterol found in eggs
may not be as detrimental as once thought; the cholesterol in egg yolks has not been proven to
raise blood cholesterol levels or increase the risk for cardiovascular disease.50
Protein Intake
Protein has a minimal and immediate effect on blood glucose levels and it aids in the sensation
of fullness. In fact, low-protein meal plans are associated with increased hunger; therefore, eating
more lean protein along with healthy fats may reduce appetite and help people achieve and
maintain a lower calorie intake. Adequate intake of protein also helps to maintain lean body
mass, so it is beneficial for those who lose weight on a diet or gain more muscle mass from
exercising, and eating enough protein is important for aging well.
Most foods with a significant amount of protein have a lower glycemic effect because protein is
metabolized more slowly than carbohydrates, usually within 3 to 4 hours. In patients with
T2DM, an increase in protein intake does not increase plasma glucose; but it will increase the
insulin response and leads to lower A1C levels.29 In fact, consuming as much as 30% to 40% of
calories as protein, with a lower intake of carbohydrates and fats, may assist with diabetes
control, weight loss, and weight maintenance. However, a high intake of protein from processed
meats actually increases diabetes risk.22 Advise patients to choose high-quality sources of
protein, such as lean meats and poultry, soy products, legumes, and fish. Moreover, a diet rich in
soy protein appears to have a lasting beneficial effect for people with T2DM because it lowers
fasting blood glucose levels, blood fats, C-reactive protein (an indicator of inflammation), and
markers of kidney disease.
In the past, protein intake has been blamed for declines in kidney function and frequently
restricted in the diets of people with diabetes for that reason. However, the relationship between
protein intake as grams per kilogram of body weight and albumin excretion rate is very weak,
except for patients with hypertension and, particularly, for those with uncontrolled diabetes.
Currently, a protein intake of 0.8 to 1 g/kg should be recommended only for patients with
diabetes and chronic kidney disease, whereas all others with diabetes do not need to reduce
protein intake to less than 1 g/kg of body weight.29
Carbohydrate Counting Versus Calorie Counting
Estimating how much insulin is needed to cover meals and snacks is frequently difficult. Many
people with diabetes have been taught to count carbohydrates; so, they try to estimate the actual
amount of carbohydrates, in grams, ingested and give themselves specific doses of mealtime
insulin based on an insulin-to-carbohydrate ratio that works for them. Although carbohydrate
counting has been shown to improve glycemic control, it is far from an exact science30 and a
nearly impossible task for individuals with below average health literacy or numeracy skills.1 When weight loss occurs as the successful outcome of a Mediterranean, vegan, or low-glycemic
index diet, greater improvements in A1C levels can be seen as compared with more standard
dietary patterns followed by adults with T2DM who are overweight.8
More recently, it has been recognized that estimating protein intake for individuals with T1DM
is also important for controlling spikes in blood glucose after meals—rather than only estimating
and accounting for carbohydrate intake—because some of the protein is converted into glucose
(albeit more slowly than carbohydrates).31 Protein takes 3 to 4 hours to be fully metabolized and
some can be converted into blood glucose when digested; therefore, a higher protein intake can
contribute to higher blood glucose levels later on, mostly for people who have to inject or pump
appropriate amounts of insulin and are using rapid-acting insulin analogues.
To complicate matters, eating a meal with more fat in it has also been shown to increase insulin
needs for those with T1DM, even when the carbohydrate content is held constant, suggesting that
alternative insulin dosing algorithms are needed for higher-fat meals.32 Fat may slow down,
slightly, the absorption of carbohydrates in the meal, but it does not change the overall blood
glucose peak.33 Vegan meals have been suggested as a healthy alternative for people with
T2DM, but their higher carbohydrate content may result in greater postprandial increases in
blood glucose compared with meat-based dietary patterns.3
Thus, all calories can potentially raise blood glucose at some point, not just those coming from
carbohydrates.34,35 This critical point was aptly made in a recent review of all studies done to date, which reported that high-fat and high-protein meals both require more total insulin than a
meal with less fat or protein and an identical carbohydrate content.36 If a person with diabetes is
unable to release enough insulin to cover blood glucose increases arising from the consumption
of all types of macronutrients, he or she will need to take exogenous doses of insulin to
compensate.
Importance of Glycemic Index, Glycemic Load, and Food Insulin Index
Glycemic Index (GI)
How rapidly a carbohydrate is digested affects insulin responses and the ability to control blood
glucose, as reflected by its glycemic index (GI). The more rapidly a food is broken down, the
faster the carbohydrate is turned into blood glucose. To deal with the influx of glucose coming
from high-GI carbohydrates, the pancreas must release a large amount of insulin; those with
diabetes or prediabetes may not be able to cover glucose spikes with enough insulin.12
The latest GI database is accessible through www.glycemicindex.com. GI values are usually
scaled from 0 to 100, with glucose having a GI of 100. High-GI foods have a GI value of 70 or
higher, including almost everything with highly refined flour or added sugars like most breakfast
cereals, pretzels, sugary candy, crackers, and bread. White potatoes may be natural, but they
have a high GI.
Other carbohydrates cause less of a spike in blood glucose levels and are generally easier for the
body to handle in moderate amounts. Sweet potatoes, rice (white or brown), oatmeal, and white
sugar have GI values in the range of 56 to 69, which gives them a medium GI. Most whole fruits,
fructose (fruit sugar), dairy products, legumes (beans), and pasta (white or whole wheat) fall into
the low-GI category (55 and lower).
The GI of a particular food can differ from one person to the next and it can also be affected by
the type and amount of carbohydrate, fat, and protein a food contains; the amount of fiber and
the nature of any starches in it; its preparation (raw or cooked); its ripeness; and its acidity. For
instance, thick linguine has a lower GI value than thin spaghetti. Overcooking, in general, raises
the GI value of foods, so al dente pasta is better. Highly acidic foods like vinegar can lower the
GI value of other foods consumed with it. Cold storage increases the resistant starch content (i.e.,
carbohydrates that are hard to digest) by more than one-third and the acid in lemon juice, lime
juice, or vinegar will slow gastric emptying.
An excessive intake of high-GI carbohydrate foods can increase insulin resistance, even for
people without diabetes.37 The standard GI values of foods have been established using the
values from individuals without diabetes. This accounts for the variability and, so, their effect
may be further exaggerated if someone releases less insulin or has impaired insulin action;
therefore, GI values may underestimate rather than overestimate the glycemic spikes caused by
most carbohydrate-rich foods in people with diabetes.
Lowering the glycemic effect of meals is beneficial. For adults who are overweight, insulin
resistance can be decreased with a diet consisting of low-GI, whole-grain foods, instead of a diet
consisting of more refined sugars. People with T2DM who follow a low-GI diet (i.e., less than 40) improve their blood glucose control, enhance insulin action, lower bad blood fats, and lose
weight.38,39 Such positive results support the GI as an appropriate guide to eating more nutritious
foods whether an individual has diabetes, pre-diabetes, or insulin resistance, or if someone just
wants to stay healthy.12
Factor in Glycemic Load (GL)
When it comes to carbohydrates, portion size does matter. Glycemic load (GL) is a measure of
both GI value and total carbohydrate intake in a typical serving. A GL of 20 or more is high, 11
to 19 is medium, and 10 or less is low. Foods that have a low GL almost always have a lower GI
value; the following is one exception to this rule: watermelon has a high GI value (72), but the
carbohydrate content per serving of this fruit is minimal, making its glycemic load (4) low.
However, a serving of watermelon is a little more than a cup. Popcorn also has a higher GI value (72), but it takes a lot to equal a 50 gram serving with a GL of just 8.
GL is a very important consideration for those with diabetes.40 A high-GI/GL diet will most
likely worsen insulin resistance and overtax the body’s ability to supply insulin. People should
limit their intake of foods with both a medium- or high-GI value and a high GL. Any
carbohydrate-heavy meal with a high GL will require more insulin, but if the GI value is not also
high—as is generally the case with high-fiber foods—blood glucose will stay lower. Legumes,
which are rich in protein and fiber, contain carbohydrates with a lower GI. A low-GL, high-fiber
diet also raises circulating levels of adiponectin, an anti-inflammatory hormone released by fat
cells that can increase insulin action and improve blood glucose control. A low GI/GL diet plan
results in weight loss as well.39
Sidebar: Use GI and GL to Lower Blood Glucose
- Choose slowly absorbed carbohydrates, not necessarily just a smaller amount of total
carbohydrates
- Use GI to identify the best carbohydrate choices, choosing foods with a lower GI
- Limit portion size when eating carbohydrate-rich foods like rice, pasta, beans, or noodles
to limit the overall GL
|
Food Insulin Index (FII): An Alternative to GI and GL
One issue with the use of GI to manage blood glucose levels is that the GI does not consider
concurrent insulin responses. Some of the same researchers who developed the GI have since
attempted to systematically rate insulin responses to common foods, instead of simply
postprandial glucose spikes, the result being the food insulin index (FII), an alternate
measurement that can be used in place of counting GI or carbohydrates.41 The results of the
initial FII study done on healthy adults without diabetes reported that the relative insulin demand
evoked by mixed meals is best predicted by a physiologic index based on actual insulin
responses to isoenergetic portions of single foods. They also found that when consuming mixed
meals with the same calorie content, but with varying macronutrient content, carbohydrate
counting was of limited value in predicting insulin needs.
The FII is effective for people with diabetes. By way of example, in a recent study involving
adults with T1DM, compared with carbohydrate counting, use of the FII algorithm substantially
decreased glucose incremental area under the curve over 3 hours (i.e., measured with continuous
glucose monitoring) and peak glucose excursion, and improved by 30% the percentage of time
glucose levels were in a normal range (i.e., defined as 72 to 180 mg/dL, or 4 to 10 mM).42 It also
works well for adults with T2DM, who had less postprandial hyperinsulinemia after eating a low-FII meal, thereby potentially improving insulin resistance and beta-cell function.43
Use of Sugar, Sugar Alcohols, and Other Sugar Substitutes
Foods that are higher in fiber are also, on the whole, lower in added sugars, fat, and calories.
White sugar has only a medium-GI value and a low GL, but the health impact of eating a lot of
white sugar and other refined carbohydrates is not trivial, particularly given their lack of
essential nutrients and high calorie content. While it is not necessary to give up refined sugars
completely, limiting their intake will help with glycemic control and cholesterol levels as well.
One of the easiest ways to start lowering the sugar content of a person’s diet and improving its
glycemic effect is to reduce or eliminate the intake of all regular soft drinks, fruit juice drinks,
and sugar-sweetened iced tea or lemonade. Substitute sugary drinks with water, diet soft drinks
(especially the non-caffeinated, non-cola varieties), or other artificially sweetened beverages,
such as Crystal Light.
As for fructose, there is nothing inherently evil about this simple sugar naturally found in fruit,
despite research that has suggested that high-fructose corn syrup in beverages leads to a fatty
liver. More likely, it is an excess intake of calories that leads to such health issues, not fructose.44
Some products are touted as sugar free because they contain sugar alcohols, which are reduced-calorie sweeteners (i.e., usually about half the number of calories as sugar). Blood glucose
responses to different sugar alcohols (e.g., sorbitol, xylitol, and lactitol) may vary; but, in
general, they will have less of an impact on blood glucose levels than other carbohydrates
because these types of sugars are not fully metabolized into calories. Although helpful for
reducing calories and blood glucose, sugar alcohols are not completely calorie free and may
cause a laxative effect in some people.
Finally, using sugar substitutes or other low-calorie sweeteners may help people reduce their
calorie intake. They also reduce the intake of high-GI carbohydrates when used in place of sugar
to sweeten coffee, tea, cereal, or fruit by adding sweetness without calories. Approved sugar
substitutes include saccharin, aspartame, acesulfame potassium, sucralose, neotame, tagatose,
and stevia, to name a few. All are considered safe to use and are recommended for people with
diabetes by the American Diabetes Association. Sucralose (Splenda) is one of the most popular
ones and has largely replaced aspartame (NutraSweet) in many products, but some people are
sensitive to it and experience negative reactions like headaches or stomach upset. Newest to the
market is Stevia, a sweetener and sugar substitute extracted from the leaves of the plant species
Stevia rebaudiana found in South America. It is 200 times sweeter than sugar, but contains no
calories and is a more natural product alternative.
Coffee and Caffeine
Caffeine has no calories and it stimulates metabolism; so, it presents the following questions:
Can people with diabetes have regular coffee with breakfast? Can people with diabetes drink diet
colas, iced tea, and other caffeinated drinks? According to the latest research, caffeine can make
the body more insulin resistant, rather than improving the chance of avoiding diabetes by
drinking coffee, as earlier studies had claimed.45,46 In lean people, obese people, and people
T2DM equally, caffeine ingestion in the amount equivalent to 2 to 3 8-ounce cups of coffee a
day (i.e., 5 mg per kg of body weight) reduces insulin action by about one-third and the caffeine-induced decrement is still present after as many as 3 months of moderate aerobic exercise (which
usually increases insulin action).47
The effects of coffee drinking have been studied in people controlling T2DM with diet, exercise,
and oral medications only. Participants wearing a glucose monitor continuously for 72 hours
revealed that 2 cups of coffee daily increased blood glucose levels by 8%.48 Caffeine intake also
exaggerated the rise in their blood glucose after meals as follows: by 9% after breakfast, 15%
after lunch, and 26% after dinner. People with T2DM who had caffeine before doing an oral
glucose tolerance test were also more insulin resistant.49
Interpreting Food Labels and Determining Portion Sizes
Food Labels
Serving Size is always at the top of the nutrition facts label. The nutrition information provided is
for the serving size that is stated on the label. Remember that the serving size on the label may
not be the same as the portions that people usually eat. To determine the grams of carbohydrate,
other macronutrients, or calories in a given product, be sure to check the serving size because the
official serving sizes can be quite small as compared with how much people usually consume at
one seating.
For the control of blood glucose, people should focus on the grams of total carbohydrate rather
than the grams of sugar listed in the indented list that follows. Sugars and fiber are counted as
part of the grams of total carbohydrate. If a food contains fiber, however, people should subtract
the fiber grams from the total carbohydrate for a more accurate estimate of the carbohydrate
content of a food because fiber is not digested—particularly if each serving contains 3 or more
grams of fiber. If a food contains sugar alcohols, subtract one half of the grams of sugar alcohols
listed on the label from the total carbohydrate content as they are not fully metabolized. Added
Sugars, as a subcategory of Sugars has finally been added to food labels to make it easier for
consumers to understand that there may be a health difference between something like the sugars
naturally occurring in fruit (fructose) and the white sugars added to beverages and processed
foods.
Manufacturers must list ingredients in the order of descending weight. In many products, refined
sugar would be listed first; or it may be disguised as 4 or 5 different sweeteners that appear lower
on the list. Look for sugar equivalents, such as sucrose, dextrose, high-fructose corn syrup, corn
syrup, glucose, fructose, maltose, levulose, honey, brown sugar, and molasses, in the ingredient
list. They are all now included as part of the Added Sugars and Total Carbs.
Portion Control
Although it may not be accurate to designate any foodstuff as completely bad for health, some
foods should be eaten in small quantities only. It is important to remember, however, that many
people experience something referred to as portion distortion and become confused about what
an appropriate portion size may be for a person of a specific weight and height. People tend to
interpret the size of their meal, regardless of how big or small it is, to be an appropriate portion.
By definition, a serving size is not the amount a person puts on his or her plate; rather, it is a
specific amount of food, defined as cups, ounces, or pieces, whereas a portion is the amount of
food that a person chooses to eat, which can be more or less than a serving. Standardized serving
sizes are required to be listed on all food labels, but even these are currently being revised by the
USDA.
Sidebar: Portion Versus Serving Sizes
- Many people think the portion in front of them is the appropriate portion size to eat, regardless of how big or small it actually is
- A serving size is a determined amount on a food label and may or may not be the correct
portion size
- What is an appropriate portion size varies from person to person
|
Most people do not conceptualize portions very well; nor do they have a good sense of their
hunger or satiety. For instance, researchers gave participants a lunch of macaroni and cheese
every day and each day they were unknowingly served larger and larger portions of macaroni
and cheese, leading them to eat more each day without realizing it. In another study, participants
who ate from secretly refilling bowls were estimated to have eaten 73% more soup than controls;
but, these participants reported feeling no more satisfied than those who ate less soup and fewer
calories.
Conclusions
There is a lot of controversy regarding what constitutes a healthy diet, especially for those with
diabetes. However, a balanced intake of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins; a severe reduction in
the consumption of processed foods, refined sugars, and carbohydrates; combined with an
increase in the amount of fiber consumed daily will likely improve glycemic control and the
overall health of all individuals with or without diabetes. Counting carbohydrates may not be as
useful as controlling overall calorie intake and choosing foods that require less insulin (as
determined with the food insulin index), although use of the GI and GL can be improve
outcomes. Sugar substitutes are safe for people with diabetes and can help reduce both glucose
spikes and calorie intake. It is also important to recognize an appropriate serving of food and
realize that a perceived portion may not necessarily be the same as an appropriate serving.
Overall, it is possible for people with diabetes to improve their overall glycemic control and
health with appropriate changes to their diet.
Counseling Tips for Pharmacists |
Category |
Counseling Tips |
General Diabetes Education |
- There is insufficient evidence to suggest that any particular diet is superior for treating overweight and obese patients with type 2 diabetes; but the Mediterranean, vegan, and low-glycemic index diets show promise.9
- Diets rich in whole grains, fruits, vegetables, legumes, and nuts; moderate in alcohol consumption; and lower in refined grains, red or processed meats, and sugar-sweetened beverages have been shown to reduce the risk of diabetes and improve glycemic control and blood lipids in patients with diabetes.7
- Carbohydrates have the greatest impact on the amount of glucose in the blood because they are converted to glucose relatively quickly.8
- Carbohydrates are also the body's first choice for fuel during many physical activities; so, not having enough in the diet may limit a person's ability to exercise optimally.6
- People with diabetes should eat as much fiber as possible to keep their health-promoting gut bacteria thriving and abundant.13
- Eat Fewer Trans Fats and Processed Fats: Trans fats are created by manufacturers when they hydrogenate or partially hydrogenate liquid oils to alter their texture.
- Eat More Omega fats and Healthy Plant Fats: Omega-3 fats can be found in dark green, leafy vegetables, canola oil, flaxseed oil, soy, some nuts, fish, and fish oils. Omega-6 fats are abundant in the corn, sunflower, peanut, and soy oils used to make food products, such as margarine, salad dressing, and cooking oils.
- Protein has a minimal and immediate effect on blood glucose levels and it aids in the sensation of fullness.29
- All calories can potentially raise blood glucose at some point, not just those coming from carbohydrates.
- One of the easiest ways to start lowering the sugar content of a person's diet and improving its glycemic effect is to reduce or eliminate the intake of all regular soft drinks, fruit juice drinks, and sugar-sweetened iced tea or lemonade.
|
Update 9/2016
In May of this year the FDA made regulatory changes to food labeling that will help consumers better understand the content of their food choices. The new Nutrition Facts label will include a new design to make it easier to understand calories and serving size. Historically, it has been difficult for consumers to understand the concept of what actually constitutes one serving. This will be highlighted on the new labeling. A percentage daily value of added sugars will also be included in the new labeling, as well as the type of fat contained in a product, not just calories from fat. The new labeling must be on all affected food products by July, 2018.
Changes to the Nutrition Facts Label
http://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/GuidanceDocumentsRegulatoryInformation/LabelingNutrition/ucm385663.htm. Accessed May 18, 2016 |
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